The Influences Upon Steven Berkoff Essay Example For Students

The Influences Upon Steven Berkoff Essay Upon analyzing Steven Berkoff as a practician I have ever deeply noted that his theories are really hard to specify due to their of all time altering and various nature. The deficiency of official certification on Berkoff s theories makes it particularly difficult to to the full grok what precisely the Berkovian public presentation manner involves and dictates. Fortunately he has written a few diaries which chronicle the dry run and originative procedure he has gone through for his assorted productions. Among these publications is Mediations on Metamorphosis ( 1995 ) , a diary of Berkoff s clip spent in Japan directing the ten percent major production of Metamorphosis, and Coriolanus in Deutschland ( 1992 ) which chronicles the dry run procedure for his 1988 production of Coriolanus in Munich, Germany. However, these diaries are chiefly autobiographical and lack much theoretical context. In 1969, Steven Berkoff presented the introduction of his version of Frank Kafka s Metamorphosis at the Round House Theatre in London. This production was important because Berkoff helping for the first clip as writer/adapter, manager, and histrion in a full-length undertaking presented an aesthetic which would go identified as his artistic hallmark. Metamorphosiscombined elements of Brechtian Epic Theatre by utilizing histrions to purposefully stand for characters instead than go them ; Antonin Artaud s Theatre of Cruelty by interrupting from traditional theater texts and inquiring the histrions to bare their interior ideas as if they were human-sacrifices to make ritualistic theaters ; Jean-Louis Barrault s total-theatre by utilizing all possible agencies to bring out the significance witting or otherwise of the drama ; and Jacques Le Coq s theories of mummer, motion, masks, and ensemble, by utilizing the performing artists to make the environment. Berkoff has besides been seen to integrate some of the ocular techniques used in Kabuki, a extremely stylized, extremely rh ythmic classicalJapanese signifier of theater. Kabuki music rises about the organic structure of the histrion. It does non enforce itself upon the histrion, but alternatively gives musical and rhythmic look to his motion, and in making so increases the flow of theatrical expressiveness toward the audience. ( 1974, p.113 ) Another facet of Nipponese Kabuki is apparent in Berkoff s traffics with masks and face pigment. We will write a custom essay on The Influences Upon Steven Berkoff specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now Even though Berkoff appropriated production manners from others and adapted the spoken words from a novel, the terminal consequence was unambiguously Berkovian. In Mediation of Metamorphosis ( 1995 ) Berkoff seems to somewhat dispute person to specify his manner when he writes, More than of all time I feel my work develop into a sort of school, non by stiff expression but by larning certain techniques which expand your political orientation and communicating accomplishments. ( 1995, p.137 ) There are subjects that have undeniably remained comparatively changeless throughout Berkoff s work, subjects that can be seen as slightly of a base to the Berkovian theoretical model. These subjects I speak of are routed chiefly in the belief that the histrions inherent aptitudes should be trusted over all else and the occupation of theory is to assist arouse these inherent aptitudes. Berkoff s common subjects of extended physical look, transmutation, and over-exaggerated experimental accent up on the spoken word should hence be used as a agency to arouse and overstate the histrion instincts when covering with the character. The ambiance is in the sound which should come from the pharynxs of the histrions. Therefore their sound can command and magnify their state of affairs, since people make sounds every bit good as traveling and talking. This is entire and human, and in this manner you return to the histrion his mimetic gifts and his unwritten expressiveness. At the same clip one is seeing the state of affairs in human footings, as a narrative told to us by participants. ( Gambit, 1978, p.17 ) .uf12da472724d692786632d79edc2640c , .uf12da472724d692786632d79edc2640c .postImageUrl , .uf12da472724d692786632d79edc2640c .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .uf12da472724d692786632d79edc2640c , .uf12da472724d692786632d79edc2640c:hover , .uf12da472724d692786632d79edc2640c:visited , .uf12da472724d692786632d79edc2640c:active { border:0!important; } .uf12da472724d692786632d79edc2640c .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .uf12da472724d692786632d79edc2640c { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .uf12da472724d692786632d79edc2640c:active , .uf12da472724d692786632d79edc2640c:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .uf12da472724d692786632d79edc2640c .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .uf12da472724d692786632d79edc2640c .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .uf12da472724d692786632d79edc2640c .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .uf12da472724d692786632d79edc2640c .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .uf12da472724d692786632d79edc2640c:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .uf12da472724d692786632d79edc2640c .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .uf12da472724d692786632d79edc2640c .uf12da472724d692786632d79edc2640c-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .uf12da472724d692786632d79edc2640c:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: The Rough Life of a Lobster EssayBerkoff believes histrions should make their ain sounds and so breaks traditional mummer conventions. Like many of Le Coq s pupils, Berkoff freely changes the pure signifier of mummer to make his ain single manner. Surprisingly Le Coq encourages this pattern as it essential to his belief in leting the histrion to work as an person, believing it is of import to be unfastened and non to copy the manner of person else because you will neer be every bit good as he is. Each is better in his ain manner ( Lust, p.106 ) .In pulling from this infusion it is clear that I believe Berkoff is frequently sometimes regarded excessively extremely for ori ginating his public presentation manner when thought in peculiar about his direction of single development. Most of his public presentation manner is derived from Le Coq who has been proven to hold steadfast roots in the pattern of Commedia delle Arte. It seems that most of the Berkovian individualism stems from his Berkoff s ain idiosyncrasy. InModern and Post-Modern Mime, Thomas Leabhart summarizes the influences upon Le Coq: Lecoqsschool is one of those theaters that, instead than being a rsum of what has happened, has helped immature performing artists find new waies and so regenerate the theater. Lecoq s whole vision of the theater is like Copeau s, remain on the peripheries of the commercial theater, non desiring to give themselves to it as it exists. They, like their instructor, work apart, continue their artistic vision, nurture their strength, and steadily increase their power to act upon the class of theatre history. ( 1989, p.101-102 ) Like Lust s definition of postmodern mummer, Leabhart s sum-up of Le Coq s influence is applicable to Berkoff. Previously in 1973, Berkoff and The London Group declared their ain mission statement: To show play in the most critical manner conceivable ; to execute at the tallness of one s powers with all the available agencies. That is, through the spoken word, gesture, mummer and music. Sometimes the accent on one, sometimes on the other. ( Theatre Quarterly, 1978, p.39 ) This philosophical statement is an ideal illustration of the invariables that have remained throughout Berkoff s subsequent calling ; stylised motion, mummer, overdone vocal work, direct reference, asides, and improvisation are constituents of about every Berkovian public presentation. Berkoff expects histrions to willingly sacrifice themselves physically and emotionally, ready to execute whatever undertakings are necessary to light the text. When covering with texts, as a manager, Berkoff does non seek to bring forth a actual reproduction of texts on phase. It rare to see Berkoff trusting on the purpose of the writer, alternatively he uses the texts to relay his ain thoughts on phase. He has nt denied this. He said himself said that his version of Hamlet ( 1979 ) was a dissection of the drama ( I am Hamlet, 1989 ) , and his theatrical production of Agamemnon was attempted as an analysis of the drama instead than a realistic rendition. ( 2007, p.123 ) Berkoff preponderantly ever sees the set as his ain duty as he believes that it is critical in conformity with his desired aesthetic and theoretical projection. Most of the clip he is seen to utilize minimalist sets normally dwelling of one stationary prop, a couch or a tabular array for illustration. He believes that any mental environment desired can be created utilizing mummer and so it is unneeded for inordinate usage of props. Many of his plants have been performed in tight close one-fourth environments with extended usage of glowering visible radiation and shadow which seek to stress the physical presence on phase. Everlastingly on a pursuit for verve Berkoff is really prone to interrupt theatrical conventions, ensuing in a manner of to a great extent a contradictory nature. These contradictions are a partner of his finding to see how I could convey mime together with the spoken word as its opposite spouse, making the signifier and construction of the piece ( 1995, p.53 ) . Features such as this can be easy traced to his preparation with Jacques Le Coq, whom Thomas Leabhart, writer of And Post-Modern Mime ( 1989 ) , as modern learning mime to speak. ( 1989, p.101 ) To blend these antonyms, Berkoff relies on mummer, a traditionally soundless signifier, yet he cherishes the spoken word ; his productions are really extraordinary energy wise yet depend on great nuance ; the histrion should neer demo himself to be self-aware yet his presented ego is really much so ; Berkoff carefully choreographs motion yet he encourages improvisation. .u0a9e9c53cfa34d9ab4594777e202e338 , .u0a9e9c53cfa34d9ab4594777e202e338 .postImageUrl , .u0a9e9c53cfa34d9ab4594777e202e338 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u0a9e9c53cfa34d9ab4594777e202e338 , .u0a9e9c53cfa34d9ab4594777e202e338:hover , .u0a9e9c53cfa34d9ab4594777e202e338:visited , .u0a9e9c53cfa34d9ab4594777e202e338:active { border:0!important; } .u0a9e9c53cfa34d9ab4594777e202e338 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u0a9e9c53cfa34d9ab4594777e202e338 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u0a9e9c53cfa34d9ab4594777e202e338:active , .u0a9e9c53cfa34d9ab4594777e202e338:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u0a9e9c53cfa34d9ab4594777e202e338 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u0a9e9c53cfa34d9ab4594777e202e338 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u0a9e9c53cfa34d9ab4594777e202e338 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u0a9e9c53cfa34d9ab4594777e202e338 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u0a9e9c53cfa34d9ab4594777e202e338:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u0a9e9c53cfa34d9ab4594777e202e338 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u0a9e9c53cfa34d9ab4594777e202e338 .u0a9e9c53cfa34d9ab4594777e202e338-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u0a9e9c53cfa34d9ab4594777e202e338:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Persuasive: Overpopulation EssayOther beginnings of Berkovian theory is rooted in interviews and short articles ( some of which Berkoff has written ) which have been printed in assorted diaries. One the most important of these articles titled Three Theatre Manifestos. ( 1978 ) In an interview nowadays in the Three Theatre Manisfestos ( 1978 ) Berkoff outlines his doctrine which, harmonizing to him, has changed little through the old ages ; he summarizes his theories by saying: In the terminal there is merely the histrion, his organic structure, head and voice The histrion exists without the drama he can improvize, be soundless, mummer, do sounds and be a informant. ( 1978, p.11 ) Another infusion from Three Theatre Manifestos depicts Berkoff sounding unusually similar to Antoni Artaud and his Threatre of Cruelty: Acting for me is the closest metaphor to human forfeit on the phase ; ( 1978, p.7 ) other echo the ideas of Brecht By depicting the accident, the informant becomes the accident ; he is at that place live overing it. ( 1978, p.11 ) The ocular elements of a Berkovian production are strikingly blunt. Classical Greek theater, Nipponese Kabuki, and Vsevelod Meyerhold s constructivism, are peculiarly influential on Berkoff s ocular aesthetic.By blending minimum sets with really theatrical costumes, masks, and lighting, the ocular focal point is on the histrion. Though the costumes draw attending to themselves, they serve to stress the performing artist and aid to make the environment and the word picture. To pull a decision on Berkoff s genuineness in theatre one must take at expression at his work in a broader sense. Berkoff s part and influence upon theater is clear, but his topographic point as a name in history in questionable. Berkoff s public presentation aesthetic will doubtless ever exist in assorted different signifiers but whether he will be credited with association is a inquiry for future historiographers. However because his work is exhaustively grounded in the plants of many celebrated theaters names his manner will doubtless be incorporated into many future creative persons works wittingly or non. Bibliography: Berkoff, S ( 1995 ) Mediations on Metamorphosis, London: Faber and Faber Berkoff, S ( 1978 ) Three Theatre Manifestos. Gambit vol.32 p.7-21 Berkoff, S ( 1989 ) I am Hamlet. New York: Grove Weidenfeld, Interview with Anthony Claire.Anthony Claire Show. BBC Radio, London. N. digital audiotape. Berkoff, S ( 1996 ) Agamemnon and The Fall of the House of Usher. Oxford: Amber Lane Press Elder, B ( 1978 ) Making the Inexpressible Uncommonly Well. Theatre Quarterly, p.37-43 Ernst, E ( 1974 ) The Kabuki Theatre, Hawaii, University of Hawaii Press Leabhart, T ( 1989 ) Modern and Post-Modern Mime. New York: St. Martin s. Lust, A ( 2000 ) From the Grecian Mimes to Marcel Marceau and Beyond: Mimes, Actors, Pierrots, and Clowns: A History Of The Many Visages Of Mime In Theatre. Kent, Scarecrow. Keefe, J ( 2007 ) Physical theaters: A Critical Reader, London, Routledge

The Declaration of Sentiments Essays

The Declaration of Sentiments Essays The Declaration of Sentiments Essay The Declaration of Sentiments Essay the narrator,   like a lot of women at the time were trapped in this chaotic pattern of the wallpaper, moreover, this chaos causes the women to feel inferior to men in the society. (yellow symbolizes inferiority.) If a woman, like John’s sister, was content with the situation, and never learn to break loose, the only thing they can hope for are men and their place in a patriarchal society. As a result, these 19th century women will never be treated seriously. That is the reason the narrator decides to tear down the yellow wall paper over her last couple of nights, she felt that she has broken the wallpaper and thus her husband and by extension the whole of society that sought to imprison her. This is a powerful message for the women at that time, and was regarded as a sign of craziness. These efforts are by no means considered easy, she has to crawl around in the room as the women crawl around in the â€Å"yellow wa llpaper.In the story, the narrator spends a lot of time on describing her husband and the treatment she received from her doctor. There is one thing that is similar between the doctor and the husband: they are not only both highly educated, successful doctors, but the way they feel about women is   also the same: They want to treat the women with passion, and they are both loving, yet the only cure they have for women with mental depression is absolutely staying away from any meaningful work, even something they love to do. Rest and isolation are their receipt for cure. In the story, the narrator is treated like a baby by her husband, she was never treated as a patient.Sunlight is a symbol of her husband’s schedule; he is always available to give her the prescription every walking hour, then he will go somewhere the narrator is not always sure of. The schedule for the narrator is kind of â€Å"strange†, she prefers to sleep in the sunlight, yet during the moonlight, when her husband’s control loosens, the narrator can be secretively creative. She even creeps outside not being afraid of being caught. The reader cannot   blame the narrator, because this is the only time, during the moonlight, she can find her identity and brave enough to realize her deeply hidden desires. The comparison between oppressive sunlight and free-spirited moonlight further helps the reader understand what the main character has been going through day by day.One more important point that the reader can understand after reading the whole story is aesthetic changes through insanity: Gilmans prose is a model for a convincingly gradual and subtle decline into insanity. The narrators tone changes from naà ¯ve and depressed to paranoid and excited, and as she grows insane, her sentences reflect the state of her mind. Much like the chaotic pattern in the wallpaper, the sentences get choppy and confusing, grafting together disconnected one-line comments.In real life, t he author, Ms. Charlotte Perkins Gilman, is a well educated woman who has a strong sense of self-consciousness,   has developed an emotion disorder due to the fatigue and depression.   The prescription she got from her doctor was trying to abandon something she loves to do – writing. This is when â€Å"The Yellow wallpaper† was born. This is truly a wonderful piece by Charlotte Perkins Gilman. It reflects the psychological suffering women have to go through during that period of time, and Ms. Gilman accuses society of putting women into this state of paranoia, depression and self-destruction. It discloses the root cause of gender inequality and serves as the marker for the upcoming feminist movement.

Idea for Business Plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Idea for Business Plan - Essay Example The competitors in the industry are large-scale dairy farmers and milk processing companies. Large scale farmers produce dairy products in large amounts and hence most customers will prefer their products since they are sure of a constant supply. Processing companies are big competitors since they have loyal customers. Nevertheless, the business people in the venture do not produce enough supply of dairy products and hence small businesses have a chance for growth under the stiff competition. The business will ascertain that its products are of high quality, and cleanliness will be paramount. Customers of dairy products mainly consider quality and health before making purchases and hence the business will be at a better position to thrive. The business will offer delivery services that will lure many customers into making orders from my firm. Dairy farming has a lot of opportunities in the greater Cleveland area since most milk products are brought from other places. Operating the business in Cleveland will minimize the operational costs and hence I can use price as a competition

IKEAs Resources and Competences in Developing Competitive Advantage Essay

IKEAs Resources and Competences in Developing Competitive Advantage - Essay Example With specific references to its competencies, it is apparent that since its inception, IKEA has always shown a great concern for people and the environment. This is based on its vision which is to create a better everyday life for many people. Indeed, its concern for people and the environment enhances its proper use of resources. Thus, it endeavors to keep its cost as minimum as possible. The IKEA entrepreneurial culture is enduring. For instance, its founder Ingvar Kamprad exhibited elements of entrepreneurship early in his childhood. As a fact, entrepreneurs are usually born and/or made. This way, the environment in which IKEA’s founder was raised up in nurtured his entrepreneurial skills. The Smalanders for instance, are famed for their informality and entrepreneurial spirit. For instance, His aunt would send him large quantities of matches which he would sell in small quantities at a lucrative price. Thus, he was exposed to an entrepreneurial culture early in his life. The leadership and organizational structure of IKEA are also ideal. Peter Hogsted, the CEO is subscribed to the idea of cost-cutting and promotes informal structure within the organization. Through the Hawthorne experiments, Elton Mayo, a renowned behavioral theorist was able to affirm that work satisfaction and performance among workers is basically not economic. It is rather more contingent on working conditions and attitudes. This includes proper communication, positive management response and encouraging employees to work hard by motivating them.

The Media Exposure of Children and Youths Essay

The Media Exposure of Children and Youths - Essay Example By spending this time watching the TV, video, and films, I got loads of information that connected with my life experiences, and more importantly, the experiences influenced my life in different ways. Through this paper, I will review two films: Adams Rib (1949) and Real Women Have Curves (2002), to show how the two have influenced and shaped my life. In particular, these two movies have highlighted the themes of gender, ethnicity and the role of parents, and have been instrumental in the development of my personal life. Â  As a Muslim, I had grown to the age of fifteen years, knowing and believing that men were superior to women in all ways, including the way they could succeed in education and career. However, during one evening, I watched a movie that would change my view of women and their potential within the society. Previously, I had watched my mother taking her roles as a housewife very confidently and proudly, until it was almost unusual for me to imagine the place of a woman in reputable roles like national administration, law or medicine (Rideout, Roberts and Foehr 6). The place that I had associated with women is commonly the reality among Muslims, as their culture and way of life, limit the entry of women into positions of leadership (Mernissi 34). The common socialized outlook, among Muslims especially those living in Muslim societies, is that men are stronger than women intellectually, physically and socially, therefore allow men to dominate women (Mernissi 34). Â  However, this outlook towards the roles and the positions of the two genders changed drastically, and the change has continued to change, since that time. The film showcases the lives of a married couple, Adam and Amanda Bonner (wife).

The importance of geometry

The importance of geometry This chapter includes the importance of geometry and the importance of learning how to solve traditional word problems by students in school mathematics. The concerns of mathematics education stakeholders about word problem solving based on national and international assessments and the suggestions provided by researchers and educators to improve students performance when solving word problems are also reviewed. The theories and empirical studies that focus on comprehension, representation, and solution of word problems are summarized. Although using mathematics, and in particular geometry, to model situations from work places has been part of education for centuries, the review of the literature starts with the beginning of the late nineteenth century, with the exception of Renà © Descartes (1596-1650) doctrine of problem solving (Encyclopedia Britannica, 1983). The review includes recommendations from important publications that inform mathematics education. Research-based theoretical and conceptual frameworks that support the solution process of mathematics word problems are used to develop a research hypothesis for examination in this study. Problem Solving and Solving Word Problems Some mathematics educators and researchers believe that a problem lies as an obstruction between two ends, the problem and the solution, without any clearly defined ways to traverse (Brownell, 1942; Mayer, 1985; Polya, 1980). This definition may also be applied to word problems because many researchers include math word problems in problem solving research (Kilpatrick, 1985). The logic behind this definition can be traced back to Renà © Descartes (1596-1650) philosophy which suggests that method is necessary to uncover the truth of nature. The following excerpt from Encyclopedia Britannica (1983) on Descartes Discourse on Method is worth mentioning as part of his doctrine of problem solving  [1]  [The Discourse] is a philosophical classic. [It] hides the fundamental assertion that the human mind is basically sound and the only means of attaining truth à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ never to accept anything as true which I [you] did not clearly and distinctly see to be so. Descartes thus implies the rejection of all accepted ideas and opinions, the determination to doubt until convinced of the contrary by self-evident facts. The second rule is an instruction to analyze the problem to be solved. Once cleared of its prejudices, the mind, using the example set by mathematicians, must divide each of the difficulties under e xamination into as many parts as possible; that is, discover what is relevant to the problem and reduce it as far as possible to its simplest data. The third rule is to conduct my thoughts in order, beginning with objects that are the simplest and easiest to know and so proceed, gradually, to knowledge of the more complex. The fourth rule is a warning to recapitulate the chains of reasoning to be certain that there are no omissions. These simple rules are not to be considered a mere automatic formula; they are to be regarded as a mental discipline, based on the example of mathematical practice. (p. 600) Schoenfeld (1987) summarized the four phases of Descartes problem solving plan. The idea in phase I is to reduce an algebra problem to a single variable equation for solving. Phase II suggests reducing a mathematics problem to an algebra problem and solving it according to phase I. In phase III, any problem situation is converted to a mathematics problem by mathematizing. In phase IV , the problem is then solved using the ideas in phase I and II. In two of his many rules (rules XIV and XV), Descartes suggested the drawing of diagrams as an aid to solving problems (pp. 29-36). It is noted from the above excerpt of Descartes problem solving process that a problem should be broken down to its parts before attempting to solve it. Each part should also be understood separately. For example, a word problem can usually be solved if one can understand the words (vocabulary), their meaning, their interconnection, the objects they represent, and the relevance of those objects in the problem. Solving a word problem is also sometimes referred to as problem solving. According to Branca (1987), problem solving is an alternative meaning of applying mathematics to different circumstances (p. 72). That means if a situation is explained in words, or in a word problem, then applying mathematics as a tool to solve that problem situation may be treated as problem solving. Also, Brow n, Cronin, and McEntire (1994) stated that assessment on word problems has different names, including math reasoning, problem solving, word problems, as well as story problems (p. 32). Although word problems have been extensively used in problem solving research, the similarity and differences between word problems and problem solving should be clarified. A word problem is also a problem to solve, according to the definitions previously mentioned. Many educators think solving word problems require the problem solving skills. For this dissertation, word problems will refer to problems of the type that appear in standardized assessments and tests such as the NAEP, the New Jersey HSPA, the SAT, and the ACT. They are not problems related to everyday human life without unstated facts where students have to wander, collect facts for mathematizing the situation before solving them. The problems in this study can be attempted using general heuristics (Polya, 1945; Schoenfeld, 1985), as well as through the application of Descartes problem solving principle and other methods based on Descartes philosophy. According to Kilpatrick (1987), in recent years, some researchers in mathematics education have used problems with increasing level of difficulty and learning opportunity that require the novel combination of rules and reasoning. A few similar problems were used in this research. (See Appendix K for sample problems) However, these problems are infrequently found outside of tests or class assignments. Solving Word Problems: A Goal of Mathematics Education Learning to solve problems is the principal reason of studying mathematics (National Council of Supervisors of Mathematics, 1977, p. 2). The NCTM (Krulik Reys, 1980) also suggested that problem solving be regarded as the major goal of learning school mathematics from 1980 to 1989 and repeated that recommendation more recently (NCTM, 2000). Mathematics accomplishment of students, which includes problem solving, became a major concern in the U. S. with the release of A Nation at Risk (U. S. Department of Education, 1983). This publication recommended focusing on the teaching of geometric and algebraic concepts and real-life importance of mathematics in solving problems. The low word problem solving ability of U.S. students of 9, 13, and 17 years of age was verified by the first data from the NAEP conducted in 1973. While analyzing the results of that assessment, Carpenter, Coburn, Reys, and Wilson (1976) concluded: It is most disturbing to ascertain the suggestion that many students receive very little opportunity to learn to solve world problems. The assessment results are so poor, however, that we wonder whether this is not the case. A commitment to working and thinking about word problems is needed for teachers and their students. (p. 392) Table 2.1 shows the scale scores of NAEP on mathematics obtained by U.S. students in grades 4, 8, and 12, on a 0 to 500 scale, from 1990 to 2007. Table 2.2 s hows the percent of different types of word problems correctly answered by the students in grades 8 and 12. According to Braswell et al. (2001), the achievement levels of 249, 299, and 336 are considered proficient levels for fourth-, eighth-, and 12th-grade students, respectively. Table 2.1 indicates very small improvements in the NAEP test scores for fourth-grade and eighth-grade students over the span of 17 years (1990 to 2007). However, these scores are below the suggested proficiency levels. It may be noted from Tables 2.1 and 2.2 that improvement, either in overall performance or in word problem solving skills for all participating U.S. students, is trivial. Also the scores that hover around 230 for grade 4, 275 for grade 8, and 300 for grade 12 on a 0 to 500 scale are too low. Of particular concern is an average of only 4% correctly answered questions for the years 1990 to 2000 (Table 2.2) by U.S. grade 12 students on volume and surface area related problems. International as sessments such as the FIMS in 1965, the SIMS in 1982, the PISA in 2003 and 2007, and the TIMSS in 1995 and 2003 further attested U.S. students poor problem solving skills and highlighted their low mathematical achievement in comparison to students from other participating countries. The FIMS and SIMS conducted mathematics assessment of 13year-old students and high school seniors (National Council of Educational Statistics, 1992). According to the NCTM (2004), the PISA measures the numerical skills and problem solving aptitude of 15-year-old students on a scale of 0 to 500whereas the TIMSS measures fourth and eighth grade students ability on concepts on a scale of 0 to 1000. The NCTM also reported that the NAEP, TIMSS, and PISA, which are low-stakes tests, generate group performance results of students. High-stakes tests, like New Jerseys HSPA or other state mandated tests, as well as the SAT and ACT, focus on the performance of individual students. Of the three assessments, NAEP, TI MSS, and PISA, TIMSS and NAEP have the most in common in terms of mathematical concepts and cognitive necessity (NCTM). The findings from the mathematics results of the PISA of 2000 and 2003 reported by Lemke et al. (2004) indicated that U. S. performance in algebra and geometry was lower than two-third of the participating OECD countries. Even the top 10% of the participants in the U.S. were outperformed by more than half of their OECD counterparts in solving problems. The then U.S. Education Secretary emphasized the need to reform high schools on top priority basis (U.S. Department of Education, 2005). The latest PISA (2007) results indicated that the mathematical accomplishment of U.S students is lower than the international average. According to TIMSS (2003), U.S. students of fourth and eighth grades scored on average 518 and 504, respectively in mathematics. These scores were higher than the average score of 495 of the fourth-grade students in the 25 participating countries and the average score of 466 of the eighth-grade students in the 45 participating countries. However, these scores were lower than the 4 Asian countries and 7 European countries for fourth grade and lower than the 5 Asian countries and 4 European countries for eighth grade. Although the average score of U.S. eighth-grade students improved by only 12 points from 492 in 1995 to 504 in 2003, there was no change reported by TIMSS in their score from 1999 to 2003. Overall, these scores on a scale from 0 to 1000 indicate that students in grades four and eight in the U.S. only achieved about 50% mastery of the concepts tested. National (NAEP, 2007) and international (FIMS, 1965; SIMS, 1982; TIMSS, 1995, 1999, 2003) assessments indicate that student achievement in mathematics remains a major educational concern. Those assessments use multiple choice, short-response, and open-ended word problems which are similar to those on the New Jersey HSPA, SAT, and ACT. Since students mathematical skills are measured using one or more of the above assessments, learning to solve word problems must be considered a major goal of mathematics education and a major component of assessing student achievement in mathematics. Further, learning to solve word problems related to real-life situations using mathematical concepts also helps students to be successful at work and in their lives. Geometry as a Cornerstone of Mathematics-History of Problem Solving and Geometry In ancient India, the rudiments of Geometry, called Rekha-Ganita, were formulated and applied to solve architectural problems for building temple motifs (Srivathsa, Narasimhan, Saà ¡Ã‚ ¹Ã†â€™sat 2003, p. 218). The 4000 years old mathematics that emerged in India during The Indus Civilization (2500 BC-1700 BC) proposed for the first time, the ideas of zero, algebra, and finding square and cube roots in Indian Vedic literature (Birodhkar, 1997; OConnor Robertson, 2000; Singh, 2004). The significance of studying geometry is evi dent from the past mathematical records. The book, A History of Mathematics (Suzuki, 2002) provides the mathematical innovations made by the most brilliant mathematicians from ancient times until the 20th century. Some of the mathematical developments presented in this book that are related to problem solving and geometry are discussed next. According to Suzuki (2002), the ancient Egyptians (3000 B.C.) demonstrated their skills in solving word problems by an Egyptian scribe on the mathematical papyri using the concepts of linear and nonlinear equations without any mathematical notations. That is, every problem solved by an Egyptian scribe was a word problem (p. 13). In order to redraw property lines after the yearly flooding of the Nile, the Egyptians developed realistic geometry related geometric figures, but not their abstract properties. Also, their geometry is filled with problems relating to pyramids (p. 16). The Babylonians (1700 B.C.) also routinely solved more complicated an d complex problems à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ entirely verbally (Suzuki, 2002, p. 28) without any system of mathematical notations. Their ways of solving interest relate problems show their advanced mathematical skills. According to Suzuki, the Babylonians also developed methods for calculating the area of triangles, trapezoids and other polygons. Before Pythagoras (580-500 B.C.), the Pythagorean Theorem was well known to the Babylonians (p. 31). The development of pre-Euclidean geometry goes back to the age of Plato (427-347 B.C.). It is said that the entrance plaque to Platos school in Athens read, Let No One Unversed In Geometry Come Under My Roof (Suzuki, 2002, p. 74). According to Suzuki, Plato had probably discovered the word mathematics from the mathema, meaning the three liberal arts, arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy (p. 74). Later, Euclid (300 B.C.), who lived in Alexandria, Egypt, wrote the Elements, a conglomeration of 300 years of Greek geometrical development. The Elements was so important for the next two thousand years of mathematics that Euclidean geometry became an essential part of learning mathematics until it faced the first serious mathematical challenges (p. 86) in the 19th century. The significance of understanding geometry for high school students has been a part of recommendations of the committees on mathematics education in the U.S. since 1894 (Commission on Mathematics, 1959; National Education Association, 1894, National Committee on Mathematical Requirements, 1923; Progressive Education Association (PEA) Committee and the Joint Commission, 1940; The National Committee of Fifteen, 1912). An account of these committees reports may be found in the 1970 yearbook of the NCTM, A History of Mathematics Education in the United States and Canada. A brief of the recommendations of these committees are presented below. The first national group of experts that addressed mathematics education was the subcommittee on mathematics of the Committee of Ten (National Education Association, 1894). They considered the goals and curriculum for mathematics education and recommended preparatory work on algebra and geometry in the upper elementary school curriculum. On demonstrative geometry, the committee stressed on the importance of elegance and finish in geometrical demonstration (p. 25). About demonstrative geometry, the committee further stated, there is no student whom it will not brighten and strengthen intellectually as few other exercises can (p. 116). This suggests all mathematics teachers engage their students in using the geometric concepts to visualize their surroundings and to geometrically demonstrate what they visualize. The final report of The National Committee of Fifteen on the Geometry Syllabus (National Education Association, 1912) recommended using realistic approaches to exercises in mathematics instruction. Eleven years later, its final report, The Reorganization of Mathematics in Secondary Education (The National C ommittee on Mathematical Requirements, 1923) also stressed the importance of the studying geometry. The commission advocated that the course of study in mathematics during the seventh, eighth, and ninth years contain the fundamental notions of arithmetic, of algebra, of intuitive geometry, of numerical trigonometry, and at least an introduction to demonstrative geometry (p. 1). One of the practical aims of this ecommendation was to encourage familiarity with geometric forms common in nature and life, as well as the elementary properties and relations of these forms, including their measurement, the development of space-perception, and the exercise of spatial imagination.

News and Politics In the 1920s :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  News and Politics In the 1920's   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The five years (1920-1925) chosen are exciting. There were presidents elected, one dying in office, baseball was still the national pastime, a major political scandal, and there were new inventions everywhere!   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Although all of the events can be listed in chronological order and described as news, the 1920’s had many exciting firsts. In telling about them, it seems to be better not to put them in any order. That makes them more interesting. That makes it easier to divide them into events. Those events make up the news, sports, industrial announce-ments, and political reports of the time.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Warren Harding walked a couple of miles down Pennsylvania Avenue on the day he was sworn into office. He appointed the Republican Senator Albert Fall from New Mexico to the Department of The Interior. Secretary Fall became one of the major scandal makers in U. S. History.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Teapot Dome affair (named for an oil field in Wyoming) was about oil. Albert Fall believed that the Navy’s oil reserves, still underground, should be available to the private enterprise. That was against the law, especially since it was done for a bribe.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Radio station KDKA out of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, was the first to make a broadcast in America. There were very few people listening! Radio receivers didn’t exist for the general population. Americans soon caught on to the idea and demanded radio sets for their homes.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A previous World Series was scandalized by bribery. By 1921, â€Å"Shoeless† Joe Jackson, and eight others of the Chicago White Sox players were on trial. Baseball really took it hard. In that same year, baseball enjoyed the first radio broadcast of the World Series, and the Giants beat the Yankees.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Colonel Billy Mitchell decided to prove his theory of airpower to the big shots in 1921. Using German ships from the Great War, Col. Mitchell’s bombers sank the former dreadnaughts pretty easily. Although he was correct, the â€Å"brass† disliked him for showing up the Navy, and the star (General Staff) was never put on his collar. Air-power did take its place in the military and it became every bit as important as he hoped.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Early Twenties sure went by fast; Lt. Al Williams broke the air speed record in 1923. He was flying a Curtis Racer when he passed 273.7 mph at an airfield in St. Louis, Missouri.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The President died in office. The newly sworn President [Mr.